The Church Fathers and Patristic Citations
This article is incomplete and will be undergoing updates.
(This is one of the areas of textual criticism about which I know
the least.)
As it stands now it comes from a limited list of sources and has
not been checked. It is advised that the reader not place great
reliance on this information without confirming it elsewhere.
It should also be remembered that information about the
Fathers is perhaps subject to more disagreement than any other
area in textual criticism. You can't expect everyone to agree
on everything!
If you have suggestions or can offer additional information,
please contact me (waltzmn@skypoint.com).
Contents: Introduction *
List of Fathers Cited in NA27 or Merk *
Where Fathers are Cited in NA27 and Merk *
How to Use Patristic Testimony *
References/Thanks To
Introduction
The text of the New Testament, it is said, is attested by a three-fold cord:
the Manuscripts, the Versions, and the Fathers (often called Patristic Evidence).
Of the three, the Fathers (as we call citations of the New Testament in the
writings of various ancient authors) are perhaps the most problematic. Although
it has been said, not too inaccurately, that we could reconstruct the entire
New Testament from the surviving quotations, the task would be much more difficult.
The Fathers' texts are often loosely cited, and they are not well-organized.
Still, the Fathers are vital for reconstructing the history of the text,
for only they can give us information about where and when a reading circulated.
Properly used, they can also provide important support for readings otherwise
poorly attested. A proper appreciation of their value is thus an important
requirement for textual criticism.
The number of authors who have left some sort of literary remains is probably
beyond counting. Even if we omit most of them -- which we should; there isn't
much critical value in a comment in an Easter table by an unknown monk -- there
are still hundreds who have appeared in one or another critical edition.
For reasons of space, this page is devoted primarily to the Fathers cited in
the editions of Nestle-Aland and Merk. Readers who wish to learn about more
obscure Fathers, or to learn more about the Fathers cited here, are strongly
urged to consult a Patrology.
List of Fathers Cited in NA27 or Merk
The list below gives the names of every Father reported to be cited in the
editions of Nestle-Aland27 and Merk.
The first line of each entry lists the name of each Father, his date, the language
in which he wrote (not always the language in which the writings are preserved),
and the abbreviations used
by Nestle and Merk. This is followed by a brief biography. For more
important fathers I have also tried to give information about the text-type(s)
found in their writings.
For a fuller list of fathers (but usually with shorter biographies)
and a list of references one is referred to the
Aland/Aland volume The Text of the New Testament or to a Patrology.
The most convenient English translation of many of the Fathers are to be
found in the series The Ante-Nicene Fathers and its followers
(major portions of which were at one time available on-line at
http://www.sni.net/advent/fathers/,
though the site has moved and I have not found its replacement
-- but it should be noted that these translations are often rather rough, that many
are based on non-critical texts, and that a number lack scriptural indices.
In addition, the on-line versions were scanned from the printed texts, and in
many instances have not been proofread and contain significant errors.
The student would probably be better advised to seek more modern translations.
Note: The table of fathers in Merk is extremely inaccurate. Some fathers
(e.g. Beatus) are cited under symbols different from those listed in the table.
Other fathers cited in the text (e.g. Bede) are simply omitted from the list.
There are also instances where
I have not been able to identify the source Merk is citing. I have done my best to
silently correct his errors (meaning that this table is a better reference
for his edition than is the edition itself!), but I have often had to simply
trust what his introduction says. (Sorry!)
For those who wish to check sources, I am slowly adding them at the end
of each item, enclosed in square brackets. A list of the sources
consulted is found at the end of the document.
Acacius of Caesarea. d. 366. Greek. Nestle: Acac.
Bishop of Cæsarea following Eusebius. [AA]
Adamantius. IV. Greek. Nestle: Ad. Merk: Ad.
"Adamantius" was an author who wrote under one of Origen's
alternate names, although his opinions are often in conflict with Origen.
The work De recta in deum fide survives in Greek and in Rufinus's
Latin translation. The Greek is clearly from after 325 (probably
from the 330s), which has led some to believe that the Latin is
actually an earlier form. But this now seems unlikely. [US, AA]
Agathangelus. V. Armenian. Merk: Ag.
Agathangelus is one of the earliest Armenian authors.
He claimed to be the secretary of the king Tiridates III
(reigned c. 284-314) and is the author of an "Armenian History"
covering the period 230-235, leading up to the conversion
of Armenia by St. Gregory the Illuminator. Aganthanelus's writings
include a long section called "The Teaching of St Gregory,"
containing allusions to the works of the Church Fathers of the
fourth and fifth centuries. Many of his scriptural quotations
seem to be related to the Diatessaron. [JV, BMM1]
Ambrose. d. c.397. Latin. Nestle: Ambr. Merk: Amb.
Born probably in the second quarter of the fourth century (339?) in Trier,
and given a classical and legal education, he was assigned to a government
post in the region of Milan around 370. In 373/374 he was baptised and made
bishop (by popular demand and apparently against his will -- it is said a child cried
out "Bishop Ambrose," and the crowd took up the call). In that
role he was responsible for baptising Augustine of Hippo; he also
exercised significant influence on several Emperors (among other things, he
forced Theodosius the Great to perform penance for a massacre, and was an
ambassador between emperors in the interregnum preceding Theodosius's reign). His
major work on the New Testament was a commentary on Luke, and he also
wrote treatises such as De Fide ad Gratianum (to the new Emperor Gratian)
and De Spiritu Sancto (381). He also may have had some influence on
the liturgy, and has even been credited with the Athanasian Creed. For all this,
Ambrose is perhaps most
significant for the respect in which he was held (his writings are
generally not very profound or original; De Spiritu Sancto, for instance,
owes a great deal to Basil the Great. This caused
several writers to have their works appear under his name --
including Ambrosiaster,
whose commentary on Paul is far more important textually than any of
Ambrose's works. Ambrose himself is thought to have worked with Greek originals
at times; his Old Latin quotations are thought to resemble those of
ff2, while in Paul his text is close to Ambrosiaster's. Paulinus
write his biography. [20CE, AA, AS, HC, PDAH]
Pseudo-Ambrose. Latin. Nestle: Ps Ambr.
Ambrosiaster. fl. 366-384. Latin. Nestle: Ambst. Merk: Ambst.
Name given to an author of
the time of Pope Damasus (366-384 C.E.) whose writings
were credited to Ambrose (also sometimes to Hilary and Augustine).
(The name "Ambrosiaster" was proposed by Erasmus, who
demonstrated that Ambrose was not the author of the works.) It is thought that
he was a high civil official, and very strongly Roman, with a
disdain for Greek learning. Ambrosiaster's most important
work is a Latin commentary on the Pauline Epistles (excluding Hebrews),
unusual for its lack of allegorical interpretations. It is probably
the single most important source of Latin patristic quotations. The larger part of the
Epistles is cited. He clearly worked from an Old Latin text, but it
is very primitive (Souter thought it close to the prototype for the Vulgate,
but this is not borne out by the citations in Nestle-Aland). Of all the
"Western" witnesses to Paul, this one seems to have the most
peculiar agreements with P46 and B. Agreements between P46, B, D, G,
and Ambrosiaster can therefore be regarded as very ancient if not always
original. In the Apocalypse, Souter compares his text to Primasius and gigas.
A second work by Ambrosiaster, Quaestiones Veteris et
Novi Testamenti, does not contain as many quotations and is less
important textually (though its opinions on Christianity and the monarchy
had great influence). [20CE, AA, AS, RBW]
Ammonius. III. Greek. Merk: Amm (also Ammon?)
The name "Ammonius" is the source of great confusion.
The more important Ammonius is Ammonius, Bishop of Thmuis (in lower Egypt)
around the time of Origen. He seemingly created the
Ammonian Sections as an
adjunct to his gospel harmony (built around Matthew). This was the system
that Eusebius elaborated and improved in his canons.
Ammonius of Thmuis is often called "Ammonius of Alexandria" -- e.g.
by Merk. This is not a good name, however, as there was another (though
much less important) Ammonius of Alexandria in the fifth/sixth century.
Neither author has left us much. The earlier Ammonius survives mostly
through the works of Eusebius, the later only in quotations in catenae.
Andreas of Cæsarea. VI. Greek. Nestle:
(
A). Merk: (An)
Archbishop of Cappadocian Cæsarea. Dated anywhere between c. 520 and
c. 600. Most noteworthy work is a commentary on the Apocalypse (the earliest
known to survive) that became so popular that copies of it form a major
fraction of the surving tradition, being almost as common as the
"strictly Byzantine" manuscripts. 1r,
from which Erasmus prepared the Textus Receptus, is an Andreas manuscript,
and certain of the marginal readings of the commentary wound up in the text.
Andreas's commentary is also responsible for the 72
divisions into which the Apocalypse is divided.
[AA, FHAS]
Aphraates. IV. Syriac. Merk: Af.
In Syriac, Afrahat. A resident of Persia (known as the "Persian Sage")
who wrote in Syriac. After Ephraem,
the most important Syriac Father; his writings are among those
used to reconstruct the Old Syriac of Paul. His basic text of the gospels
is the Diatessaron, though he
perhaps also used the Old Syriac. Born probably in the second half
of the third century, his great works (the Demonstrationes) date
from 336/7 and 344. His date of death is listed by Merk as 367, but the
evidence is incomplete. His works have sometimes been falsely attributed
to Jacob Nisibenus. [AA, AS, CH]
Apostolic Constitutions/Canons. IV/V. Greek. Merk: Can Ap.
A collection of liturgical instructions from the late fourth century,
sometimes credited to the Pseudo-Ignatius and possibly compiled in Antioch.
To this is appended the Apostolic Canons, pertaining mostly to the
ordination of the clergy. The two books are believed to be roughly
contemporary. The whole is thought to be dependent on Hippolytus's
Apostolic Tradition [20CE, AA, CH]
Apringius Pacensis. VI. Latin. Nestle: Apr. Merk: Ap.
Bishop of Pace (modern Beja, Portugal). His commentary on the
Apocalypse probably dates from shortly after 551.
Aristides. fl. c. 150. Greek. Merk: Arist.
Author of an Apology addressed to the Emperor Antoninus Pius
(or possibly his predecessor Hadrian; so Eusebius; it should be noted, however,
that Hadrianus was one of Pius's alternate names.). It exists in an almost-complete
Syriac version and Greek and Armenian fragments. The Greek text is preserved
almost complete, though probably in a slightly condensed form,
as part of the romance of Barlaam and Joasaph. [AA, Eus, FKBA]
Arnobius the Younger. V. Latin. Nestle: Arn.
Called "the Younger" because there was an earlier Arnobius (who
reportedly taught Lactantius and wrote a defence of Christianity, Libri vii adversus
gentes, during Diocletian's persecution). The younger Arnobius probably was born in
North Africa but fled to Rome to escape the Vandals. In Rome, some time
around 455, he compiled a set of scholia on the Gospels.
Athanasius of Alexandria. d. 373. Greek. Nestle: Ath. Merk: Ath.
The great defender of orthodoxy in the age of Arianism. As a young man
of about 26,
he attended the Council of Nicea, and espoused its principles for nearly
fifty years. Later chosen Bishop of Alexandria (from 328, succeeding
the equally orthodox Bishop Alexander), he was driven into exile
five times (the first time from 335-346, and not on doctrinal but practical grounds;
thereafter usually for opposing Arianism). Despite being exiled by both
monarch and church, he always managed to return. His works consist
mostly of treatises against the Arians (many of these from the period
after 350, when Arianism seemed to be threatening to destroy orthodoxy);
the most important of these was probably On (the) Incarnation. He also
penned some apologetic works and a handful of other writings
such as the Life on Antony (Athanasius was friends with the
saintly monk, and helped encourage monasticism in Egypt). He also, having spent many years
in exile in the West, introduced a handful of Western practices into the
Egyptian church, and seems to have tried to introduce a more natural,
personal worship. Despite his time in the west, his text is generally
regarded as Alexandrian (though not as pure as it might be). His text is
not as useful as might be expected, however; he does not provide enough
material.
Athanasius is often credited with fixing the canon of the New Testament
in one of his festal letters, but it should be noted that the church had
already nearly settled on its official list of books before he was even
born, and that extra-canonical books continued to be copied in Bibles
for some decades after his death. His name is also attached
to the Athanasian Creed, but in fact this is a Latin work which
does not seem to have any connection with Athanasius. [AA, AS, HC, PDAH, RBW]
Athenagoras. II. Greek. Nestle: Athen.
A (self-described?) "Christian Philosopher." Little is
known of his life. During the period
when Marcus Aurelius and Commodus were co-Emperors (i.e. 177-180)
he wrote an important Apology for Christianity. Unlike
some authors of the period, he appealed for understanding and
harmony. His other known work is On the Resurrection. [AA, HC]
Augustine of Hippo. d. 430. Latin. Nestle: Aug. Merk: Aug.
Born 354 in Thagaste in Numidia (North Africa), the son of a pagan father and a
Christian mother (Monica). He had
early Christian training, but initially rejected the faith. He became a Manichean
before finally turning Christian (under the influence of Ambrose).
In his early years he taught rhetoric (moving to Rome for this reason in 382,
then to Milan in 384),
then underwent a conversion experience around 385. He tried to return to seclusion
in Africa, but was made priest, then coadjutator bishop of Hippo in 395,
and soon after became sole holder of the episcopal title. He died in 430
as the Vandals besieged Hippo.
His theology was extremely predestinarian and rigid (he was Calvin's
primary inspiration), but his voluminous works were
widely treasured. His many quotations are in Latin (though he was aware
of the importance of the Greek), and he is responsible for the famous
remark about the "Itala" being the best of the Latin versions.
His text does not seem to indicate which Latin type this is,
however; while his Latin text is pre-vulgate, it is clearly not the
African Latin of Cyprian, and does not seem to be purely "European"
either. (In Paul, his text is considered to be close to r of the
Old Latin -- but r is quite distinct from the other Latin witnesses.
Souter lists his text in the Acts, Catholic Epistles, and Apocalypse
as close to h.) Theologically, his two most important works are the
City of God and the largely autobiographical Confessions.
[20CE, AA, AS, HC, PDAH]
Pseudo-Augustine (=Quodvultdeus?). Latin. Merk: Ps.Aug
Barsalibi (Dionysus bar Salibi). d. 1171. Syriac. Merk: Bars
A member of the Jacobite Syriac church, he was bishop first of Mabbûg
and then Amida. He wrote commentaries on the Gospels and some works on
theology. His text is essentially that of the Peshitta, and so has little
influence on our text.
Basil of Ancyra. IV. Greek. Nestle: BasA.
Bishop of Ancyra from about 335. In an era when Arianism was becoming
ever more powerful and ever more radical, he held relatively close to the
Nicene position, trying to keep the Emperor Constantius from adopting the
Arian position of Valens of Mursa during the 350s. Although by 360 it
appeared that Constantius was committed to Arianism, Basil's followers
eventually joined forces with Athanasius to maintain Nicene orthodoxy.
Basil himself died around 374. [AA, HC]
Basil the Great of Cæsarea. d. 379. Greek. Nestle: Bas. Merk: Bas
One of the great "Cappadocian Fathers," he was the brother of
Gregory of Nyssa. Born of a well-to-do family around 330, he studied in several cities
before becoming a hermit (358?) and did much to reform and organize
the eastern monastic rules. In the 360s he became a presbyter, then in 370
Bishop of Cappadocian Cæsarea. Along with his brother and his friend Gregory
of Nazianzus, he was one of the great defenders of Nicene orthodoxy in the
mid to late fourth century, particularly after the death of Athanasius.
He was probably around fifty when he died on the first day of 379, and although
he felt frustrated by the schisms which remained in the church
(the Principate was still promoting heterodox causes, and Rome had rejected
his claims), his work was important to the reunification
of orthodoxy which soon followed. He also made some changes in church order,
and worked to keep the ascetic movement under episcopal control. He has
been called the "true founder of communal... monasticism."
His book On the Holy Spirit was one
of the great writings of Nicene Christianity. He also wrote letters which illuminate
the problems of a bishop in those troubles times. Debate continues about
the authenticity of some of his minor works. Von Soden considers his
text to align with the Purple Uncials;
if true, this would make it almost but not quite purely Byzantine. [20CE, AA, AS, HC, PDAH]
Basilides. II. (Greek). Nestle: Basil.
Basilidies, a Gnostic, has left no direct literary remains (although
Origen credits a gospel to him). What little we know comes from
Clement of Alexandria
(who preserved some quotations), Irenæus,
Origen, the Acta Archelai,
and the Philosophumena of Hippolytus
(the latter perhaps based on forged documents).
The sources are extremely inconsistent, and different
editors have preferred different interpretations. Irenæus and
Clement describe a complex divine scheme (including, e.g., 365
different heavens!) similar to that of Valentinus. The universe has degenerated
from its lofty origins. The "Hippolytan" view is of ascent rather than descent,
and involves fewer divine beings. The Acta Archelai implies something
like Persian dualism. [20CE]
Beatus of Liébana. VIII. Latin. Nestle: Bea. Merk: Be
A Spanish abbot, died probably 798, noteworthy primarily for his
commentary on the Apocalypse.
Venerable Bede. d. 735. Latin. Nestle: Beda. Merk: Beda
Born in about 672/3 in Northumbria (Britain), he wrote a wide variety
of works, including the famous history of the English church. He also
translated portions of the Bible into Anglo-Saxon (though no part of
these translations survive), and is said to have just finished the
translation of John when he died (May 735 or possibly 736).
Less important are works such as the Lives of the Abbots,
which have little textual value though they tell us something about
Bede himself (living as he did in monasteries from the age of seven)
and the English church. His exceptional scholarship and piety are
shown by the fact that he was made a deacon by the future Saint
John of Beverly (this is significant as 25 was the normal minimum
age). He became a priest at thirty, and spent the rest of his
life in scholarship. For textual purposes, Bede's most
important works are commentaries on the Gospels, Acts (for which he
used the Codex Laudianus, E), and Apocalypse. His works generally
testify to the quality of Vulgate manuscripts used in eighth century
Britain, as his text (except, of course, where he consulted E) stands
very close to the Codex Amiatinus. He was eventually canonized by Pope
Leo XIII, more than 1200 years after his death (and by which time
Britain was Protestant). [20CE, AS, BMM2, LSP]
John Cassian. d. c. 435. Latin. Nestle: Cn.
Born in the third quarter of the fourth century, probably in
Rumania, he became a monk (first in Bethlehem, then in Egypt).
Made a deacon by Chrysostom around the turn of the century, he
was in Rome around 405 and in 415 founded a monastery in Marsailles.
His writings struck something of a balance between those of
Augustine (whose doctrine of predestination more or less denied
the human power to do anything) and Pelagius (who could be interpreted
as denying God's grace).
Cassiodorus. VI. Latin. Nestle: Cass. Merk: Cass
Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus was born late in the fifth
century in Calabria. He was probably still in his early twenties when
he became secretary to Theodoric the Great around 507. Despite eventually
being made a patrician, around 540 he withdrew to a monastery of his
own founding, where he did much to preserve the surviving remnants of
Latin literature. Much of his time in the monastery was devoted to
theological writings; he also collected a large library which he
described in the Institutiones Diuinarum et Sæcularium Lectionum,
which at some points discusses textual questions. He and his pupils
also rewote the (anonymous) Pelagian commentary on Paul (this was
once accidentally credited to Primasius). Cassiodorus may also have
been a translator; at least, he preserved in Latin translation some
of the writings of Clement of Alexandria
(and probably other Greek writers). He lived to a great age and
probably died around 580. The text of his commentary on Romans is
said to closely resemble Codex Amiatinus of the vulgate; his pupils,
however, used texts with Old Latin readings -- as did Cassiodorus
himself in certain of his other writings. [AA, AS, R&W]
John Chrysostom. d. 407. Greek. Nestle: Chr. Merk:
Cr
Called "golden-mouthed."
Born in Antioch to a well-to-do family around 345, he chose a monastic
career around 375 (having previously studied rhetoric under Libanius).
His fine speaking brought him to high
favour (although he tried to avoid clerical promotion). He was a pupil of
Diodorus of Tarsus, but his orthodoxy was unquestioned.
Appointed Patriarch
of Constantinople against his will in 398, he quickly found himself in conflict
with the Empress Eudoxia (wife of Arcadius, the first Eastern Roman emperor after
the final split between the two halves); he apparently regarded her lifestyle as
too luxurious, and was in any case anti-feminist. After several years of argument
and reconciliation, court politics resulted in his
deposition and exile (403-404). A final brief reconciliation ended in 404, and
Chrysostom died in 407 while still in exile.
Most of his surviving works (of which there are very many)
are sermons (many of them spurious; many writers tried to add luster to their
works by attributing them to the great orator). His text is generally
regarded as Byzantine, and is one of the earliest examples of the type, but --
like most early witnesses to the Byzantine text -- he often departs from the
developed Byzantine text of later centuries, possibly in the direction of the
"Western" text. [20CE, AA, AS, MG, PDAH]
Clement of Alexandria. d. c. 215. Greek. Nestle: Cl. Merk: Cl
Titus Flavius Clemens was born in the mid-Second century,
probably of pagan Athenian parents. In the latter part of
that century, after years of travel and study under a variety of masters, he
met Pantænus, the head of the Catechetical School. Clement became an
instructor around 190, and eventually became the school's leader. He left
Alexandria around 202/203 as a result of the persecution under Severus, and
died a few years later (after 211 but before 217) in Asia Minor.
Clement was apparently a prolific writer; Eusebius lists ten books
he wrote (the Miscellanies (Stromateis), the Outlines,
the Address to the Greeks, the Pædagogus, and
a series of shorter works). A few other works are mentioned by other writers.
Of these, we have most of the Miscellanies (apparently never
completed; Clement himself called it "not a careful literary composition"
and "notes stored up for my old age"), the Address,
and the Pædagogus. The
latter two were designed to introduce non-Christians to the faith; the
former is a collection of philosophical reflections and notes.
The text of Clement is diverse; it has readings of all known text-types.
Presumably he gathered all these different forms in his wide travels and
wide studies (W. Bauer thought he was at one point a Gnostic, perhaps
a Valentinian, but it seems more likely that he
simply lived in a mystical climate). A few of the problems with Clement's
text may result from his own rather casual style of quotation.
He is thus better used as an indication of how old readings are than as an
indication of where they originated.
Clement of Alexandria should not be confused with Clement of Rome, who
wrote 1 Clement and had assorted later works attributed to him. [20CE, AA, AS, Eus, PDAH]
Clement of Rome. c. 95. Greek. Merk: Clr
The name "Clement" is often associated with the oldest known
non-canonical Christian writing, which we call 1 Clement. This anonymous
letter was written from Rome to Corinth (then experiencing strong
internal dissent) around 95 C.E.,
and was for a time held in such high esteem as to be considered canonical.
As such it is found in the Codex Alexandrinus.
1 Clement was held to be the work of Clement, the third bishop
of Rome (following Linus and Anencletus, and omitting Peter and
Paul). This Clement was held, in turn, to be the Clement of
Phil. 4:3 (so Eusebius, H. E. iii.15, following
Origen. Others suggested the Roman nobleman Titus Flavius
Clemens, executed by the Emperor Domitian in 95 on apparent suspicion of
Christianity. All of this is, at best, speculation. Eusebius
tells us that Clement was Bishop of Rome from the twelfth
year of Domitian (about 93) to the third year of Trajan (100/101),
crediting him with nine years of service.
The importance of 1 Clement lies not so much in its quotations (few
of which are important for textual criticism; they are usually allusions
at best) as for what it tells us
about the canon. It appears to refer to a collection of Paul's letters,
and it alludes to both Hebrews (which is in fact a major influence on
the letter) and 1 Peter, showing that both were in circulation by its
time. Interestingly, 1 Clement shows no particular knowledge of any
of the Gospels.
Such was the popularity of 1 Clement that a number of later
documents, including 2 Clement and the Clementine Homilies, were
credited to him. But there can be no doubt that they came from other
hands. [AA, Eus, MS]
Pseudo-Clementine Homilies. IV?. Greek. Nestle: Clhom. Merk: Clh
II Clement. II. Greek. Nestle: 2Cl. See Clement of Rome.
Cyprian. d. 258. Latin. Nestle: Cyp. Merk: Cyp
(seemingly occasionally mis-cited as Cy)
Thascius Caecilius Cyprianus was born near the beginning of the
third century, probably in Carthage. He was well-educated, with a legal
background (it has been speculated that this influenced his immense
respect for Tertullian), and taught rhetoric in the 240s.
He became a Christian rather late in life, and was not baptised
until 246. Soon after (248/9), by popular demand, he became Bishop of Carthage.
He fled Carthage during the Decian persecution of 249, and was subjected
to condemnation as a result. He nonetheless returned to his bishopric in 251.
In the following years the Roman church split into factions under Cornelius
(who was willing to forgive those who lapsed during the persecution) and
Novatian (who was not). Cyprian argued strongly in favor of Cornelius, and
his arguments helped swing Catholic orthodoxy toward Cornelius.
When the Valerian persecution arose in 258, Cyprian decided not
to flee again. He saw to it that he was arrested in Carthage, and
was executed soon after.
Cyprian's surviving works consist of a large number of letters and
ten or so treatises on church-related subjects. These include
On Exhortation to Martyrdom, On the Lapsed, and On the Unity of the Church.
The last is perhaps his most important work; unfortunately, two forms of
certain key passages are in circulation.
Cyrpian derived many of his ideas from Tertullian, whom he called "the Master."
His text is, not surprisingly,
the African Old Latin, and is considered to be very similar to k of the
Gospels and h of the epistles.
Several pseudonymous works, such as de Montibus Sina et Sion
and the Ad Novatianum,
eventually circulated under Cyprian's name. Perhaps the most important was
de Rebaptismate,
which led Eusebius to believe that Cyprian called for
rebaptising those who fell into heresy, though in fact he held the opposite
position. [20CE, AA, AS, Eus]
Cyril of Alexandria. d. 444. Greek. Nestle: Cyr. Merk: Cy
Born in the third century of a well-known Alexandrian family, he became
Patriarch of Alexandria in 412. His opinions are rather diffuse; much of
his thought seems to come from Platonic philosophy, and his arguments
are often rather vague, poorly supported, and illogical. Thus he cannot
be regarded as a great Christian thinker, though he accomplished much
for the church. Although most of his writings are exegetical, but
he played a vigorous role in the controversies with the Monophysites.
He should perhaps be credited with finally vanquishing Apollinarianism.
Nestorius accused him of making Jesus imperfectly human, but Cyril, a
passionate debater, managed to out-maneuver and out-argue Nestorius at
every turn (both Cyril and Nestorius were temporarily deposed in 431, but
Cyril's deposition, while passed by a small group of bishops, was confirmed
by the authorities simply to keep the peace. He was soon restored, while
Nestorius's punishment proved permanent). Cyril died in 444, and was later canonized.
The text of Cyril, as might be expected, is Alexandrian, although
an assortment of alien (including Byzantine) readings are found in it.
[20CE, AA, HC]
Cyril of Jerusalem. d. 386. Greek. Nestle: CyrJ. Merk: Cyi.
Born in Jerusalem in the first quarter of the fourth century. He probably
was not much past twenty when he became a deacon in 325. In 345 he became a
presbyter, and finally Bishop of Jerusalem from about 349. Repeatedly forced
into exile, he died in 386/7. His surviving writings include a set of
24 Catechetical Lectures for converts preparing for baptism.
According to Roderic L. Mullen, Cyril's text is mixed and varies from book to book but
generally goes with the late Alexandrian witnesses (with some Byzantine
influence). In Mark it appears to approach the "Cæsarean"
witnesses. [VB, AA]
Cyrillonas. IV/V. Merk: Cyr.
Didache. II?. Greek. Nestle: Didache.
Also called The Teachings of the Twelve Apostles, and as such largely
incorporated into the Apostolic Constitutions and the Didascalia Apostolorum.
A short pamphlet concerning the Way of Life and the Way of Death, with other
material on forms of worship, surviving in a Greek manuscript from the year 1056,
plus fragments, as
well as in Georgian ad fragments in other langauges. Very conservative and legalistic
(and possibly based on a
Jewish original), it seems to derive most of its
Christian material from Matthew. Its date
is usually given as early second century (based on the fact that the Letter of
Barnabas appears to quote it). However, the possibility should not be excluded
that both the Didache and Barnabas derive their material from a common source,
probably a Jewish document on "The Two Ways" (so Goodspeed).
Similarly, it is possible that the material in the Apostolic Constitutions
comes from a lost common source. On this basis some would
regard the Didache as a later compilation of early writings. Dates as late
as the fifth century have been mentioned. We should note, though, that it is
mentioned by Eusebius and used (perhaps even treated as scripture)
by Clement of Alexandria;
this argues strongly for an earlier date. Still,
dates as late as 180 or so are quite possible (some have thought that
Chapter 16 describes the persecution under Marcus Aurelius, which began
in 177; of course, Chapter 16 coud be a later addition).
Some have thought to connect the Didache with Montanism,
but the evidence is relatively slight. Textually, the primary importance of the Didache
is in connection with the Lord's Prayer, for it cites
that writing in its full form, including the Doxology
(oti sou estin... aiwnas).
This is usually taken to mean that the longer form of the Prayer was circulating
in copies of Matthew's gospel no later than the early second century -- though
the possibility should not be discounted that the Byzantine copies of Matthew
derived the doxology from the Didache, or that both received it from some third
source. [20CE, AA, FKBA, GG, MS]
Didascalia Apostolorum (Teachings of the Apostles).
III. Greek. Merk: Didasc. Apostol.
This name is sometimes used for the Didache, but Merk seems to
be referring to the third century instruction manual which the Alands call
the Didascalia. Although only fragments survive in Greek, we have a
complete Syriac and a partial Latin version.
Didymus (the Blind) of Alexandria. d. 398. Greek. Nestle: Did. Merk: Did.
Didymus the Blind was
born around 313. Despite his handicap (acquired probably as the result
of childhood disease), he became director of the Catechetical
School of Alexandria during the time of Athanasius, and retained the post
for some decades. Ehrman believes that he worked primarily as an individual
instructor rather than a lecturer, but in any case his prodigious memory
helped to re-establish the school's reputation after a period of uninspired
leadership. He died very
near the end of the fourth century. His literary output consists primarily
of commentaries on various Biblical books (both OT and NT), though his
theological works were important in the
controversies of his day. The exact extent of his writings is
unclear; the authorship of several works is in dispute. Many of his writings
were lost until 1941, when a large collection of writings was found at Toura
in Egypt. This included several commentaries of Didymus's, along with
other works which seem to have been transcribed from his lectures.
Didymus's text of the Gospels seems to be a form of the Alexandrian tradition
(Ehrman notes that he lived at about the time the great uncials Vaticanus
and Sinaiticus were produced), but with the sort of mixed readings one
often associated with the later witnesses to the tradition. In the latter chapters
of John, this mixed element seems to become dominant. In the Catholics his text
appears to be Alexandrian but with occasional links to the 1739 type. [AA, BE, RBW]
Diodorus of Tarsus. IV. Greek. Merk: Diod.
Born in Antioch, where he directed a monastery, he became Bishop of
Tarsus in 378. He wrote commentaries on much of the New Testament. He was
also active in the Christological controversies of his age, arguing that
Jesus became fully human when he was born and distinguishing between
the Son of God and the Son of Mary (but without considering them distinct).
As a result, Cyril of Alexandria later portrayed him as a Nestorian -- but
Diodorus, who was dead by 394, was long since past such controversies.
Dionysius of Alexandria. d. 264/5. Greek. Nestle: (Dion). Merk: Dion.
Dionysus of Alexandria was born around the turn of the third century, and came
to Christianity from paganism and Gnosticism. He studied under Origen, and became
director of the Catechetical School when Origen's successor Heraclas became
bishop. Dionysus succeeded to the episcopate following Heraclas's death in 247.
From that time on he went in and out of exile as a result of various persecutions.
(He took a certain amount of glee in pointing out that, during the Decian
persecution, he simply stayed at home while the authorities searched everywhere
but there.) Finally he died in 264/5 during the famines that followed the revolt
of the Roman governor of Egypt.
Dionysus was a prolific writer, and he contributed heavily to the fight against
the heresies of Paul of Samosata, Nepos, and Sabellius, as well as weighing
in on the topic of rebaptism of heretics and the lapsed. Of this corpus,
however, only a few letters have survived, supplemented by some fragments and quotations from
Eusebius and others. We know, however, that he did a
careful analysis which proved that the author of the Apocalypse was not the author
of the Gospel and Letters of John. [AA, Eus]
Pseudo Dionysus. V/VI. Greek. Nestle: (PsDion).
I believe this refers to the
author who wrote under the name "Dionysus the Areopagite" -- although the
Pseudo Dionysus is not listed in the Nestle-Aland list of Fathers, so we cannot be
certain. This author wrote between 475 and 550, but since his works were regarded
as early, they were used during the Christological controversies of the seventh
century to support the theory that God and Christ, whatever their distinctions, had
one "energeia."
Dionysus the Areopagite see the Pseudo Dionysus above.
Ephraem. d. 373. Syriac. Merk: Ef.
Born in Nisibis in 306, he became a deacon and fled to Edessa after that city was taken by
the Persians. He was the leading light of the school there, and produced a wide variety
of writings -- including a commentary on the Diatessaron which is our leading source for
that book. Although the larger share of his works are preserved in Armenian, Ephraem
is our leading source of information about the Old Syriac outside the Gospels. He died in 373.
On a less distinguished note, the upper writing of C consists of treatises by
Ephraem. Sadly, these are among his less distinguished writings.
Epiphanius of Constantia. d. 403. Greek. Nestle: Epiph. Merk: Ep.
Burn in Judea c. 315, he
later founded a monastery and became bishop of Salamis (Constantia) in Cyprus. He died
in 403. The author of various works, of which his volume on Heresies
is perhaps the most important. He also wrote De mensuris et ponderibus,
a biblical "encyclopedia" now extant primarily in Syriac, and
Ancoratus, on trinitarian doctrine. His text is considered to be
early Byzantine, but is marred by his frequent paraphrases and extremely
loose citations. [AA, CH, SS]
Epistula Apostolorum. c. 140? Greek. Merk: Ep Apost.
This curious work is the subject of much speculation, as the Greek original is
lost and the primary translations (Coptic and Latin) are fragmentary. The fullest
text is Ethiopic.
Even if we had a more reliable text of the work, it is clearly not the product
of a particularly knowledgeable author. Although he gives a summary of Jesus's life
and teachings, as well as a warning against gnosticism, the list of apostles is truly
curious. To achieve a total of eleven apostles, the author includes not only Nathanael
but also Cephas, who is distinguished from Peter.
Eugenius of Cathage. fl. 484. Merk: Eug.
Eusebius of Cæsarea. d. c.340. Greek. Nestle: Eus. Merk: Eus.
Born probably around 263, in Palestine,
he studied under Pamphilius, and became Bishop of Cæsarea about the time
Constantine the Great became ruler of the whole Empire (i.e. c. 312/313).
He was a friend and close advisor of Constantine, even though his theology had
an Arian tinge. His most important literary accomplishments were probably his Church
History (he has been called the father of Christian History, although
Hegesippus was probably the first true church historian)
and the canons which bear his name.
But he also wrote the Preparation
for the Gospel, assorted commentaries, and a number of lesser works, many
of them lost. (In addition, Eusebius offered the creed which the Council of
Nicea used as the basis for its doctrinal statement.) He died around 340.
His text has been called "Cæsarean,"
and certainly has the mixed character associated with that type, but it does
not seem to preserve any type in a pure form. (His text is harder than
most to analyse because he rarely provides long quotations.) Von Soden thought it a leading
representative of the I text; Streeter places his text between the "Western"
and Cæsarean texts. It should be noted, however (as Lake himself
pointed out), that Eusebius used a number of manuscripts, and not
infrequently can be found on both sides of a reading (the obvious
example being Mark 16:9-20). Nor should his text be considered identical
to that of Origen, even during Origen's "Cæsarean"
period. [20CE, 4G, AA, AS, Eus, GZ, HC, PDAH]
Euthalius. IV. Greek. Merk: Euth.
Almost nothing is known of his life; we do not, for instance, know what role
(if any) he had in the church. Nor are his dates firm; his edition has been dated
from the fourth to the seventh (!) century, though the fourth century is most likely
(this seems the earliest possible date, as he is dependent on Eusebius);
he is reported as an Alexandrian deacon (so the prologue in 2004) and (later?)
Bishop of Sulci (Euqaliou
episkopou Soulkhs; so the prologue in 181).
We also know that he was a grammarian, and that he
created a poetic edition of the Apostolos. Euthalius/Evagrius is also credited
with a list of helps for the reader, including prologues, information about
cross-references, chapter headings (which also serve as useful section divisions),
and other material (see under Euthalian Apparatus).
Manuscripts written in Euthalius's sense-lines are very rare (Scrivener
believes they were too expensive in vellum). The apparatus, however, is common.
Various attempts have been made to reconstruct the Euthalian edition. Zuntz,
regarding it as a "Cæsarean" continuation of the Alexandrian
tradition, sees it in von Soden's grouping 88 181 917 1834 1836 1912, plus H
and the upper writing of P. That is, Zuntz equates it to Soden's Ia1
less the bilingual uncials D F G. He regards Euthalius as formulating
the late texts of Cæsarea, but does not regard it as truly
"Cæsarean." (Note that this is not a list of manuscripts with
Euthalian material; we find all or part of his marginalia also in manuscripts
such as 1 82 421 1162 1175 1244 1424 1874 1880 1888 1891 1894 1895 1898.)
It has been theorized, with little evidence, that the 69 chapter divisions
used by Vaticanus in Acts are derived, with modifications, from Euthalius.
It has also been theorized that the reason for the confusion about names
and such is that the Euthalian apparatus is actually composite -- a first
draft made in the early-to-mid fourth century, a revision toward the end of
that century (either of these might have been by "Evagrius;")
and a final revision/publication by the seventh century Bishop Euthalius
of Sulci. [20CE, AA, BMM2, FHAS, JF, GZ]
Evagrius see Euthalius.
Filastrius. d. c. 390. Merk: Fil.
Firmicus Maternus. IV. Latin. Nestle: Firmicus.
Julius Firmicus Maternus was born in Sicily and pursued a career as a rhetor.
After turning to Christianity (from a career as an astrologer), he wrote to the Emperor
(Julian) to argue against paganism. He must therefore have died after Julian's accession
in 361, but we have no details. His work is called On the Error of Profane
Religions. [MG]
Fulgentius of Ruspe. V/VI. Latin. Nestle: Fulg. Merk: Fulg
Born in Telepte, Africa around 467, he came of a senatorial family and
served for a time as a procurator. He then retired to a monastery. He was
bishop of Ruspe from about 507 (though he spent 508-515 and 517-523 in
exile). Much of his work is directed against "semi-Pelagianism."
He died some time around 530. His text of the Catholic Epistles
is reportedly similar to that of the Old Latin q (Codex Monacensis,
Beuron #64; Nestle's r). [AA, AS, CH]
Gennadius I of Constantinope. d. 471. Greek. Merk: Genn
Patriarch of Constantinople 458-471. His surviving works consist
only of fragments of commentaries on the Pauline Epistles.
Gospel of the Ebionites. II?. Merk: Ev. Eb
Also called "The Gospel of the Twelve," and
sometimes erroneously labelled "The Gospel of the Hebrews."
Now lost except for a few citations in Epiphanius. It appears to be
a sort of harmonized gospel based primarily on the Matthew
(in whose mouth portions of it are placed; the rest is credited
to the Apostles generally), with some modifications to suit
the views of the Ebionites. Epiphanius considers it to be a
"Hebrew" work, but from its contents it seems likely that
the original was Greek. [GG, CG]
Gospel of the Hebrews. I/II?. Merk: Ev. Hebr
Although Jerome claims to have translated this from the Hebrew,
the Gospel of the Hebrews as we have it is clearly a Greek
work, written possibly in Egypt (where some small fragments believed
to be part of it have been found). It is mentioned frequently --
and often with respect -- by
early writers, but has survived only in fragments. It is quite
possible that our surviving fragments (quoted by various writers
in several languages) actually come from multiple documents.
It appears to have been a narrative gospel, with Matthew the
largest contributing element and Luke second. Given the confusion
about just what document this is, we really cannot say much
more about it. [GG, CG]
Gospel of the Nazoreans. I/II?. Merk: Ev. Naz
This is another book often referred to as the "The Gospel of the
Hebrews." This one at least appears to have been composed in
Aramaic, probably based primarily on the Gospel of Matthew. It
seems to have been referred to by Hegesippus, dating it before
180. It survives primarily in quotations from Jerome, with a
handful from Eusebius and perhaps one from
Origen. [CG]
Gregory of Nazianzus. IV. Greek. Merk: Na
Born around 329/330, his father was Bishop of Nazianzus. In 362 he
became a priest. He never actually became Bishop of Nazianzus
himself. Rather, he was chosen Bishop of the small town of Sasima at the
instigation of his friend Basil the Great. This was part of Basil's attempt to
place as many orthodox bishops as possible in an area that had slipped
from Basil's control. Gregory was reluctant -- and, indeed, the move
backfired when Gregory was transferred to Constantinople in 379/380.
Bishops at this time were not supposed to change jurisdictions, and
the transfer was used as an argument against Gregory. Tired of the
controversy, he retired in 381 and turned to writing an autobiography. Despite the
controversy,,
he was of immense service to the church in a troubled time. Along
with Basil of Cæsarea and Gregory of Nyssa, he was one of
the three great "Cappadocian Fathers" who helped save
orthodoxy against Arianism. He died around 390/1. Of his writings
we have a series of orations plus some letters and poems.
Von Soden considers his text to align with the
Purple Uncials. [AA, AS, HC, PDAH]
Gregory of Nyssa. d. 394. Greek. Nestle: GrNy. Merk: Ny
The younger brother of Basil the Great of Cæsarea, and an
equally staunch defender of orthodoxy. He was appointed bishop of
Nyssa by his brother in 371 (he was only about 35 at the time). Later
he was moved to Sebaste in Roman Armenia. As well as producing
assorted exegetical works, he argued strongly for Nicene
orthodoxy against Arianism, doing much of his best work after Basil's death.
Gregory died in 394. Von Soden considers his
text to align with the Purple Uncials. [AA, AS, HC, PDAH]
Hegesippus. II. Greek. Merk: Heg
Very little is known of this author, although Eusebius believed
he was Jewish (since he knew Aramaic and/or Hebrew; also, he listed
no fewer than seven Jewish sects) and that he
"belonged to the first generation after the Apostles." Having travelled
widely, he wrote a book of Memoirs containing much church
history. This was probably completed during the papacy of Eleutherus
(174-189), since Eusebius reports that Hegesippus lived in Rome from
the time of Pope Anicetus to that of Eleutherus.
Hegesippus's book is now lost, but significant portions are quoted by
Eusebius and we find fragments in other authors such as
Epphanius (though not cited by name). [20CE, AA, Eus, CH]
Heracleon. fl. 160. Greek. Merk: Her
A Valentinian Gnostic, he wrote a commentary on John (said to have
been used by Origen despite its source). He also seems to have been
used by various fathers as a reference for the Preaching of Peter.
Hesychius of Jerusalem. V. Greek. Nestle: Hes.
Not to be confused with the author credited with an edition of
the Septuagint. A monk who became a presbyter in Jerusalem some
time around 410-415, he wrote extensive commentaries (which, however,
survive only in fragments). He seems to have been alive as late as 451.
Hilarius Arelatus. fl. 440. Merk: Hila
Hilary of Poitiers. d. 367. Latin. Nestle: Hil. Merk: Hil
Born in the first quarter of the fourth century to a pagan family,
he turned Christian and was appointed bishop of his home city of Poitiers
around 350. He was exiled to Asia Minor for a time, but continued to
fight Arianism in Gaul. His major work is a commentary on Matthew; he
is also credited with De Trinitate Libri XII, a commentary
on the Psalms, and some shorter works.
Souter compares his text in the gospels with the Old Latin r (Nestle's r1).
His scattered quotes from Paul are interesting; while often "Western,"
they seem to show the same sort of intermittent affinity with P46 and B that
we also find in Ambrosiaster. (This is not to say that the two have the same
text, but the influences seem to be similar.) [AA, AS, CH]
Hippolytus. d. 235/6. Greek. Nestle: Hipp. Merk: Hipp
A student of Irenæus, Hippolytus was probably born around 170
and spent much of his early life in Rome (Origen was among those who heard
him speak). In the early third century he openly voiced his disgust with
the laxity of the Bishops of the time. This led to a schism in the Roman
church in 217, with Hippolytus appointed Pope in opposition to the official
candidate Calixtus. He continued to oppose the various Popes until
235, when both Hippolytus and his rival Pontianus were sent to the mines
during the Persecution of Maximin. He probably died there, although
there is a chance that he lived to return to Rome in 236. In any case,
he was buried in 236. His death healed the schism in Rome.
A statue of Hippolytus lists his literary works and shows that
he was a prolific writer. Relatively little of this survives, however;
we have portions of his Refutations of All Heresies in Greek
(though some have thought this to be from another author, perhaps named
Josephus (not the Jewish historian); Photius credits Hippolytus's On the
Universe to Josephus), and various other works such as the
Apostolic Tradition in translation. Curiously for a Western
author, most of his works are preserved in Eastern languages
(Georgian, Armenian, Old Church Slavonic). Eusebius, though
familiar with a number of these works, did not know his history,
for he describes him as "a prelate like Beryllus, though his
see is unknown." His text is described as "Western"
(though this is based largely on translations), and Souter thought
he might have consulted the Diatessaron. [20CE, AA, AS, Eus, HC]
Irenæus. late II. Greek. Nestle: Ir. Merk: Ir/Ir
One of the most important early Fathers, known almost entirely for one work, the
Adversus Hæreses, "Against Heresies." This work describes a number
of heretical movements of which we would otherwise have no knowledge, and so
provides important historical and textual information about the early church.
Born in the early-to-mid second century, probably near Smyrna,
Irenæus studied under Polycarp, then
moved to Lyons, where he was bishop from 177/178. His great work was written around 185
(At least, the third book lists popes up to the reign of Pope Eleutherus -- i.e.
174-189). He probably died late in the second century. Gregory of Tours (who wrote in
the sixth century) reports that he succeeded the martyred bishop Photinus,
converted "the whole city" of Lyons to Christianity, and was then
martyred himself (the first of many local martyrs; History of the Franks I.29).
All of this would inspire more confidence if it had more confirmation, e.g. in
evidence that Lyons actually did turn Christian.
Sadly for posterity, the Greek original of the Adversus Haereses has
perished almost completely. All that endures, apart from fragments (one on a potsherd!)
and quotations
in authors such as Epiphanius, is a Latin translation, probably from the fourth
or perhaps the third century (in Africa?), plus some material in Syriac. (Souter argues, based on the fact that
one quotation follows the Lucianic recension of the Septuagint, that the Latin translation
must be from the fourth century; however, we now know that Lucianic readings precede
sometimes Lucian.) While the translation seems to preserve the outline of
Irenæus's text fairly well, one may suspect the scriptural quotations of assimilation
to the Old Latin (the Greek text, insofar as we have it, often disagrees with the
Latin).
The Latin text of the Adversus Hæreses gives its quotations in a
distinctly "Western" form, perhaps most closely resembling the European
Latin. Irenæus is one of the chief supports for the belief in the antiquity of
the "Western" text.
One other work of Irenæus's survives, the Apostolic Preaching, preserved
in Armenian. Comparison with the Adversus Hæreses seems to show two different
sorts of text, heightening the suspicion that at least one book has been assimilated to
the current local version. Eusebius also quotes from a variety of writings, and
mentions letters such as To Blastus, on Schism and To Florinus, on
Sole Sovereignty, or God is not the Author of Evil. [20CE, AA, AS, Eus, PDAH]
Jerome (Hieronymus). d. 420. Latin. Nestle: Hier. Merk: Hier
Born in Dalmatia sometime around 350 (347?; others have offered dates as early as 331),
Sophronius Eusebius Hieronymous
soon showed immense potential as a scholar. He lived for a while in Jerusalem,
then was summoned by Pope Damasus in 382 to revise the Latin versions. The result,
of course, was the Vulgate. He completed
his revision of the Gospels in 383/4, but seems to have largely abandoned the
work to devote his energies to the Hebrew Old Testament. He died in 419/20.
In addition to his translations (which include patristic works as well as the
Vulgate), he left a number of letters and assorted commentaries plus biographies
of "Famous Men."
The text of Jerome is something of a puzzle. The Vulgate gospels have
an obviously mixed text, with many Alexandrian readings, a few "Western"
variants (presumably left over from the Old Latin), and a very strong Byzantine
overlay. In the Epistles -- where Jerome's work seems to have been cursory --
the text again has Alexandrian readings, this time with more "Western"
elements but hardly any Byzantine overlay. The text of the Apocalypse stands
fairly close to A and C.
Interestingly, the text used by Jerome in his commentaries often differs
from that in the Vulgate. (Compare Souter: "In Luke he certainly used the
[Old Latin] a type. In the Acts there are signs he used a type related to gig and p...
but this was not the type he used as the basis of the Vulgate.")
Some of these readings (e.g. the short reading in Eph.
5:31) seem to belong to obscure traditions related to Family 1739 and the
African Latin. Taken as a group, they do not appear to belong with any particular
text-type. [AA, AS, BMM1, PDAH, RBW]
John of Damascus. VII/VIII. Greek. Merk: Dam
Born in Damascus after the Islamic conquest (probably around 650; certainly not
much earlier, as his father was still working for the government in 685).
His father served as a treasury official in the Islamic government.
(It was common for Christians to hold such posts.) For
a time John also served the government, but some time around 695-707 he entered a
Jerusalem monastery. Later he became a priest, and turned to writing.
His major work for our purposes is a commentary on Paul (which, however, is
largely based on Chrysostom, Theodoret, and Cyril of Alexandria). He also
wrote concerning the heresies of his time, such as iconoclasm, and about
Islam. [20CE, AA]
Julius Cassanius. II. Nestle: Jul.
Justin Martyr. d. c. 165. Greek. Nestle: Ju. Merk: Iust
Born early in the second century in Palestine, but of a pagan family,
he later turned Christian and apologist. He wrote extensively to justify
Christianity to pagans (he directed writings to the Emperors Antoninus Pius
and Marcus Aurelius, as well as producing the famous Dialogue with Trypho),
and is one of the earliest Christian writers whose
works survive in large quantities. He alludes to scripture regularly, but
rarely with precision; it is rarely possible (especially in the synoptic
gospels) to tell what his actual text was, or even which book he is
quoting, as he is so given to paraphrase (it is
believed he used the Gospel of Matthew most frequently).
He was martyred in the reign of Marcus Aurelius. (Tatian, who
knew Justin, reports that this was at the instigation of the cynic
philosopher Crescens, who considered Justin to be showing him up.)
[AA, AS, CH, Eus]
Juvencus. IV. Latin. Merk: Juv
Gaius Vettius Aquilinus Juvencus was an upper-class Roman citizen of
Spain. A presbyter but perhaps not a priest, he compiled a harmony of the
gospels in Latin hexameters around 330 -- little of which, however, has
survived.
Lactantius. d. after 317. Latin. Nestle: Lact.
Lucius Caecilius Firmanius Lactantius was born late in the first half
of the third century. Born a pagan, he seems to have been a published
author before he turned Christian. He himself tells us that the Emperor
Diocletian called him to Nicomedia to be a teacher. Whether he was a
Christian at that time is unknown, but he must have converted by 303,
as Diocletian's persecution forced him to limit his activities to writing.
In 317 the Emperor Constantine called him to tutor his son Crispus. The
date of his death is unknown.
Lactantius wrote over a dozen books, about half of which survive in whole
or in part. His most important extant works are the massive Divine
Institutes (of which we also have an epitome) and
the vicious little treatise On the Deaths of the Persecutors (sometimes
denied to Lactantius, but on rather weak grounds).
Lazarus Pharpensis (Lazar Pàrpetsi). V/VI. Armenian. Merk: Laz
Author of an "History of Armenia" covering the years 385-485.
[JV]
Liber Graduum. IV/V. Syriac. Merk: LG
A set of writings on monasticism and asceticism. The date is uncertain
and has been placed as late as the fifth century. The fact that it uses
the Diatessaron, however, argues for a somewhat earlier date.
Lucifer of Calaris. d. c. 371. Latin. Nestle: Lcf. Merk: Lcf
Originally Bishop of Cagliari/Calaris (in Sardinia), he was exiled in 355
following the Synod of Milan. He turned to polemic writings, and died around
371. His text supplies many interesting Old Latin readings, often of the most
radical character. Souter compares it to a in John, to gigas in Acts, and to
d in Paul. [AA, AS]
Marcion. II. Greek. Nestle: Mcion. Merk: Mn
In some ways the most important of the Fathers, since his editorial work
on Luke and the Pauline Epistles may have given an important impetus to the
formation of the New Testament canon.
Marcion was born in the late first century in Sinope
(on the Black Sea in Pontus). The son of a bishop, and himself apparently a
successful businessman, he went to Rome at around 138, but was expelled from
the church there in 144. He went on to form a rival church. His death date is unknown.
Without going into detail about Marcion's theology, we should note that
he separated the Gods of the Old and New Testaments. This may have led him to
downplay the Old Testament allusions from his New Testament
(which consisted only of Luke and the ten Pauline Epistles to churches);
it is often claimed that he removed these referemces. However, in 1 Corinthians
we have evidence that he retained at least nine of eleven Old Testament citations.
Marcion's writings and his Bible text have not survived; we know them
only from citations by authors such as Tertullian and
Epiphanius. This,
combined with the fact that Marcion rewrote the documents he studied, makes it
difficult to recover his underlying text. (Nor are we helped by the fact
that our best evidence about him comes from Tertullian, who was
quite capable of rewriting his sources). But all evidence seems to indicate
that his text was highly interesting and very early (e.g. it clearly omitted the
reference to Ephesus in Eph. 1:1). Readings associated with him seem
to have been transmitted in the "Western," P46/B, and 1739
texts; they are rarer in the Alexandrian text. (Compare Souter, who writes --
based on what we should note is incomplete evidence -- that "We find him
in company with the Latin witnesses, especially the European Old-Latin
MSS., but not infrequently also with the Old Syriac. He is never on the side of
the great Greek uncials against both these versions.") Still, if Marcion can
be reliably determined to support a reading, and if it has good support
from other, less partisan witnesses, we may consider that reading to
be very ancient and significant. [US, RBW, AA, AS, GG, etc.]
Marcus Eremita. IV/V. Greek. Nestle: Marc.
A prolific author whose works have largely been lost, he was for a time
in charge of a monastery in Ancyra. He later retired and became a hermit.
He died some time after 430.
Marcus/Marcosians. II. Nestle: Mar.
Marius Victorinus. IV. Latin. Nestle: MVict.
Gaius Marius Victorinus moved from Africa to Rome in the fourth century.
He became famous as a teacher of rhetoric, but, having turned Christian,
he gave up the subject in 362 in response to a law of Julian the Apostate.
His primary work was a commentary on the Pauline Epistles.
Maximus of Turin. IV/V. Latin. Merk: Max
The earlier of two Bishops of Turin with the name Maximus. His literary
output consists of nearly a hundred sermons. Of his life we know only
that Gennadius reports that he died between 408 and 423.
Melitius of Antioch. d. 381. Greek. Merk: Mel
Originally Bishop of Sebaste, later translated to Antioch.
Like so many in this period, he was sent into exile on several
occasions. He died in 381 during the Council of Constantinople.
Methodius of Olympus. III. Greek. Nestle: Meth. Merk: Meth
A very shadowy figure, believed to have been the bishop of Lycian
Olympus (though even this is uncertain). He may have been martyred in
311. He was evidently a prolific writer, and though we have only
fragments in Greek, much of his work survives in Slavonic and other
eastern languages.
de Montibus Sina et Sion. III. Merk: SiSi
One of hte vaious works falsely attributed to Cyprian. [20CE]
Naasseni (Naassene Gnostics). II. Merk: Naass
A group of Gnostics known primarily from Hippolytus. They are
believed to have been active during the reigns of Hadrian and
Antoninus Pius. Their theology is typical Gnostic, replete with
odd dieties, flute players, and the like. They have been equated with the
Ophites, but the evidence is at best thin.
Nicetas of Remesiana. IV/V. Latin. Nestle: Nic. Merk: Nic (also Niceta?)
Nicetas was bishop of Remesiana (in what was then Dalmatia and
is now Serbia). He died some time after 414. What little we know of
him comes mostly from the writings of his friend Paulinus of Nola.
Nilus of Ancyra. V. Greek. Nestle: Nil.
Director of a monastery in Ancyra in Asia. He died some time around
430.
Novatian. III. Latin. Nestle: Nov. Merk: Nov
Very little is known of this author's life; we know neither the date
of his birth nor that of his death. He probably was not born a Christian,
as we are told that he received baptism on his sickbed. Other than this
we know nothing of him till the time of Decius's persecution, when we find
him writing a letter to Cyprian on behalf of the Roman congregation.
Novatian's career reached its somewhat dubious height in 251, when the
Roman church split over the question of whether to re-admit those who had
lapsed from the faith during the persecution. When Cornelius was elected
Bishop of Rome by those willing to forgive lapses, the stricter party
elected Novatian as a rival Pope. Thus, although entirely orthodox, he
became one of the first schismatics of the western church.
Little else can be said of further career. That he at some point left
Rome seems likely. The fifth century historian Socrates says that he died
in 257 during the persecution of Valerian, but there is some evidence that
he was alive in 258.
Since Novatian was a schismatic, his works were not prized for his name.
Yet their intelligence gave them value. We are thus in the peculiar situation
of having several works of Novatian preserved under the names of other authors.
On the Trinity, for instance, was credited to Tertullian. Other works
are credited to Cyprian. Had it not been for a list of Novatian's writings
preserved by Jerome, we might never have known that On the Trinity and
On Jewish Foods are by Novatian. As it is, there are several books
Harnack considers to be by Novatian that we simply cannot be sure of. Souter
considers his text to be similar to the Old Latin a in John, and close to
d of Paul. [AA, AS, HC, GG]
Oecumenius. VI. Greek. Merk: Oec
Sometimes listed (falsely) as a bishop of Tricca and as of the tenth
century. He wrote a commentary on
the Apocalypse. (The commentaries on the Acts, Catholic Epistles, and Paul which
circulated under his name are listed by the Alands pseudepigraphal, though Von
Soden did not so distinguish.)
Trained in philosophy and known as a rhetor, Oecumenius was apparently
also a monophysite, as he wrote in support of the known monophysite Severus of
Antioch. [AA, CH]
Opus Imperfectum in Matthew. IV/V. Merk: OI
Opera Graeca. Merk: Ef
Ophites. Nestle: Ophites.
A Gnostic sect, also called the "Sethians" (after Seth, the
son of Adam and Eve from whom they claimed descent). Much of what we know
about them comes from Origen in Contra Celsum (Celsus had described
the elaborate "Ophite Diagram" which he considered an orthodox
Christian artifact, and Origen of course counterattacked.) They had the
usual complex Gnostic theology of aeons and divinities, with three orders
of the universe. They have been equated
with the Naasseni, though the evidence is at best thin.
[20CE]
Optatus of Mileve. IV. Latin. Merk: Opt
Of uncertain date, except that Augustine mentions him as dead in the
year 400. As Bishop of Mileve (in Numidia), he wrote to combat Donatism,
and his writings (in six or more volumes) are one of the chief sources
concerning that schism. [AA, CH]
Origen d. 254. Greek. Nestle: Or (Ors refers to the
commentary on John 2:12-25 not by Origen). Merk:
Wr/Or
Born of a Christian family in 184/5, his father Leonidas
died in the persecution in the tenth year of Severus (202;
Eusebius tells us that
Origen wanted to be martyred at the same time but was prevented by his mother,
who hid all his clothing to keep him from going out). Even at this early age
the formidably able Origen was already able to support his mother
and siblings by teaching rhetoric. About a year later Bishop Demetrius
appointed him to direct the Alexandrian Catechetical School, succeeding
Clement of Alexandria. Soon after this, if
Eusebius is to be believed, he neutered himself to fulfill Jesus's
comment about those who made themselves eunuchs for the sake of
the kingdom of heaven (Ecc. Hist. vi.8; the story of Origen occupies
a large portion of this book of Eusebius's history.
Origen left Alexandria during Caracalla's 215 persecution,
and spent a few years in Cæsarea
before Demetrius called him back to Egypt and chastised him for
preaching without being ordained. In 230/1 he was ordained a
presbyter while on a journey. Demetrius felt that Origen was
flouting his authority and managed to have Origen barred from
teaching in Alexandria. He left Alexandria for Cæsarea, where he spent the
rest of his life. He suffered during the Decian persecution, and this may have
hastened his death, which took place in the reign of Decius (so Eusebius)
or soon after (so most moderns).
Although Origen's views were later to be condemned (he believed, e.g.,
in the pre-existence of souls), his scholarship during his lifetime was
unquestioned. He had trouble with the church hierarchy, but this seems
to have been due to jealousy rather than doctrinal reasons.
Origen was fortunate enough to have a wealthy patron, Ambrose
(not the father of that name, but an Alexandrian whom Origen had
converted to his way of thinking), who allowed him to devote his
life to writing and scholarship. (Epiphanius
reports that his writings totalled six thousand volumes -- i.e. presumably
scrolls -- although Rufinus, probably correctly, calls this absurd.
Jerome gives a list describing 177 volumes on the Old Testament and
114 on the New. Fewer than 10% of these survive in Greek, and the Latin
tradition is only slightly fuller.)
The catalog of Origen's works is immense. Unlike the majority of
early Christians, he took the trouble to learn at least some Hebrew, and so was able
to comment on the Hebrew Bible and even compile his massive six-column
"Hexapla" edition of the Old Testament (comprising the Hebrew
text, the Hebrew transcribed in Greek, and the four translations of
Aquila, Symmachus, LXX, and Theodotion) -- a work which alone was larger
than most scholars' lifetime output. He also wrote massive
commentaries on large parts of the Bible -- often several times the
size of the original volume (e.g. his Commentary on Matthew
contained 21 books, that on John 32, and those on Romans and Galatians
15 each). Alongside this were several apologetic and theological
works, although little of this has survived except the work Against Celsus
(arguably the best Christian apology ever written, compiled in answer to arguably
the ablest assault on the faith). In addition, about 575 of his
homilies were transcribed (though, again, only a handful survive in Greek and
fewer than half even in Latin). The sheer volume of his writings worked
against him; it was almost impossible for any library to contain them
all, and even Eusebius complained about the fragmentary state of many
of Origen's works.
The text of Origen is a complex riddle. Part of the problem is the
spotty survival of his works. As noted, a large fraction of his output exists only
in Latin (much of it translated by Rufinus, who often rewrote what he
translated). These sections have at times been accomodated to the various
Latin versions. Even the portions preserved in Greek are often conformed
to the Byzantine text, so that the lemmata of Origen's commentaries are
only to be trusted where they are supported by his exposition.
Aside from these difficulties, Origen seems to have used several
sorts of texts. In Alexandria, he apparently used a very early
Alexandrian text (by no means identical to the later text of Sinaiticus
etc., especially in Paul, although it is closer to Vaticanus and the papyri).
Once he moved to Cæsarea, he apparently took to using local,
presumably "Cæsarean," manuscripts for some books --
but by no means all.
In the Gospels, Origen is considered the key witness to the
"Cæsarean" text. Indeed, only Origen preserves it
in anything like a pure form -- and even that only in part,
since so many of Origen's works use Alexandrian texts. For example,
Streeter claims that the text of Mark Origen used in his
Commentary on John is Alexandrian in books 1-5 (written
while Origen was in Alexandria) and Cæsarean in the remainder
(written in Cæsarea. For all the flaws -- and they are many --
in Streeter's methodology, this conclusion seems reasonable).
On the other hand, Origen seems to have used Alexandrian manuscripts
of John (closer to Vaticanus than Sinaiticus) for the entire Commentary -- and
probably to the end of his life. Streeter also believes Origen used
a Cæsarean text of Matthew for his Commentary on Matthew.
Elsewhere Origen falls closest to Family 1739,
although (as Zuntz
noted) his text is by no means identical to the 1739 text (or to
Eusebius, who is also said to have a "Cæsarean" text).
Instead Origen seems to fall somewhere between P46/B
and 1739, though noticeably closer to the latter. [4G, AA, Eus, GG, GZ, PDAH, RBW]
Orosius. IV/V. Latin. Nestle: Oros.
Paulus Orosius was born in what is now Portugal (Braga) in the fourth
century. By 414 he was a priest visiting Augustine in Hippo, and in 415 he
met Jerome in Bethlehem. Returning to Africa, he wrote a history which
extends through the year 417. Charles E. Chapman describes this history as "of a
pronouncedly anti-pagan, pro-Christian character." Nothing is known of his life after
it was finished.
Pacian of Barcelona. IV. Latin. Merk: Pac
Bishop of Barcelona, respected by Jerome. He died around 380-390.
Pelagius. d. after 418. Latin. Nestle: Pel. Merk: Pel
Heretic, with a theology considered to place too much stress on
human action and too little on God's grace. Born in the mid to
late third century in Britain, he moved to Rome (perhaps around 400) but left in
410 to escape the sack of the city. He spent the following years North Africa,
where he became a frequent target of Augustine's pen. Later he moved to
Palestine. He was excommunicated in 417/418. He probably died
in the course of the 420s. His most important work is a commentary
on Paul (c. 409) which includes many important Old Latin quotations --
of a type which perhaps preceded the Vulgate. [AA, AS, CE, HC, PDAH]
Polycarp of Smyrna. d. 156 (167?). Greek. Nestle: Polyc. Merk: Pol
Bishop of Smyrna. Born in the third quarter of the first century,
he learned directly from apostles and others who knew Jesus. He in
turn tutored Irenæus. He was martyred in 155 or 156 (so many moderns)
or 167 or 168 (so, e.g., Eusebius, who dates the event to the reign of
Marcus Aurelius) or perhaps even later (one manuscript states that Irenæus had
a vision of his death while in Rome -- i.e. 177 -- but if this were true,
it would seem likely that Irenæus would have mentioned it). He is
said to have been in his eighties, and certainly he must have been very
old. Only fragments
of his writings (notably a letter to the Philippians, though this is now
believed to be composite, with the final tow chapters coming perhaps from the
time of Ignatius and the rest being later) have been
preserved, but he was held in such high respect that it is likely
that he influenced other writers -- notably, of course, Irenæus.
We do have a description of his martyrdom; while it lacks the
extravagance of some such stories, it still seems somewhat
exaggerated. [20CE, AA, Eus]
Primasius. VI. Latin. Nestle: Prim. Merk: Pr
The bishop of Hadrumentum in Africa, his major work is a commentary
on the Apocalypse (based in part on that of Victorinus). He died after 552,
probably in the 560s. His text is said to resemble the Old Latin h. (Note:
References to a commentary on Paul by Primasius are the result of a modern
error; the commentary actually comes from the school of
Cassiodorus.) [AA, AS]
Priscillian. d. 385/6. Latin. Nestle: Prisc. Merk: Prisc
Born in a well-to-do Spanish family, he became Bishop of Avila in 380.
He was, however, heretical on his doctrine of the Trinity (which he did
not believe in). In 385 he was tried for his heresy and/or for magic,
and executed -- the first execution carried out by the church, and one
that roused strong protests even from certain of Priscillian's opponents.
(It was a troubled time in the late empire, the emperor Magnus Maximus
was trying to establish himself, and may have been trying to prove his
orthodoxy when he allowed Priscilliam to be executed.) Priscillian's
primary writing is the Canones in epistulas Paulinas, which
naturally includes many Old Latin readings (Souter equates his text with
that of Speculum in the Catholic Epistles, and considers it close to Gigas in
Acts) -- but Priscillian is
doubtless most noteworthy for originating the "Three Heavenly
Witnesses" in 1 John 5:7-8. [AA, AS, HC, MG]
Prosper of Aquitaine. V. Latin. Nestle: Prosp.
Prosper Tiro was a monk and lay theologian from near modern
Marsailles. He corresponded with Augustine and supported his
rigid doctrines during the period from 428 to 435 when they were
most strongly under attack. Although he had received only lukewarm
support from Pope Celestine, from 440 he served in the court of Pope Leo I.
He died some time after 455. Previously thought to have written De
promissionibus, now attributed to Quodvultdeus.
Ptolemy the Gnostic. before 180. (Greek). Nestle: Ptol. Merk: Ptol.
A Valentinian, known from the writings of Irenæus (who cites his
commentary on the prologue to John) and Epiphanius (who preserves his Letter
to Flora). He taught that Christ had a soul and a "psychic" body,
and that God is one, not two. This made him sort of a moderate by Gnostic standards.
Quodvultdeus. d. c. 453. Latin. Nestle: Qu.
Born probably in the late fourth century, and became Bishop of Carthage in
437. He was banished by Geiserich the Vandal in 439, and died some years later.
Believed to be the author of certain works once attributed to Augustine.
His most important work, however (if it is truly his), is De promissionibus et
praedictionibus dei, a study of prophecies about Christ and the Church.
de Rebaptismate (Pseudo-Cyprian). III. Latin. Merk: Rebapt.
A sort of proto-Donatist tract, claiming to be by Cyprian (and
sometimes included in his works) but in fact opposed to his doctrines
on how to treat those who left the church during persecutions.
Rufinus. d. 410. Latin. Merk: Ruf.
Tyrannius Rufinus was born probably shortly before 350 of a
Christian family at Aquileia. He spent time there as a monk, but also
travelled to Egypt (where he lived for six years) and Jerusalem
before returning to Italy in 397. He died in Messina in 410.
Although he wrote some works of his own (on the Apostle's Creed; also
on church history and biography), his primary role was as a translator
(e.g. of Origen), but he often
adapted what he translated, conforming scriptures to the Latin versions
and adding commentary of his own. Thus one must always be careful, in
using one of Rufinus's translations, to distinguish the original author
from the translator.
Sedulius. V. Latin. (Merk: Sed)
Author of a biblical epic called the "Paschale Carmen"
(sometimes used for instruction), as well hymns such as the well-known
"A solis ortus cardine." Not to be confused with the
Irish priest Sedulius Scottus, also known for poetry, who wrote commentaries on
Matthew and Paul. [CS]
Serapion of Thmuis. IV. Greek. Merk: Sar.
After a time as head of a monastery, he became Bishop of Thmuis (in lower
Egypt) in 339. He is responsible for the Euchologion, a collection
of liturgical prayers. He died around 360.
Severian of Gabala. IV/V. Greek. Merk: Sev.
Bishop of Gabala (in Syria). He wrote a commentary on the Pauline
Epistles which is now lost but which is quoted in various catenæ. He died
some time after 408.
de Singularitate. III. Merk: Sing.
Socrates. V. Greek. Merk: Socr.
Although a layman, his importance is as a church historian (his work
is considered the sequel to Eusebius). He was born in Constantinople
probably around 380, and died around 439/40.
Speculum (Pseudo-Augustine). V?. Latin. Nestle: Spec. Merk: (cited as Old Latin m).
A collection of statements and precepts drawn from the Old Latin Bible (both Old
and New Testaments). It has been attributed to Augustine,
but this is not likely. Aland
dates it c. 427. Except in editions associated with the Alands, it is usually
cited as m of the Old Latin. In Paul at least, the text seems to be generally
more primitive than the European Latin of the bilingual uncials. In the Catholics,
it has many links with the text of Priscillian.
Tatian. II. Greek/Syriac. Merk: Ta.
The problems of Tatian and his Diatessaron simply cannot be covered here;
they belong in their own article (some additional information can be found in the
article on the Versions under Diatessaron).
In any case, Tatian is not truly a Father; if
he wrote works about orthodox Christianity, they have not survived. Even his magnum
opus has effectively disappeared in the original language (we can say this
confidently even though we do not know what language it was!).
Tatian, a resident of Syria or Assyria, was born at an unknown date in the first
half of the second century. In the middle years of the century he moved to
Rome (where he knew, among others, Justin Martyr) and became a member of the
Christian community. Around 167, however, he left the Roman church; most scholars
think this was for doctrinal reasons -- and probably not entirely voluntary.
Tatian has been regarded as the founder of the Encratites;
in any event, he encouraged chastity and various other forms of self-discipline
not accepted by the Orthodox. Jerome, for instance, describes him as "Tatian,
who maintaining the imaginary flesh of Christ, pronounces all sexual
connection impure, [and] who was also the very violent heresiarch of the
Encratites" (Commentary on Galatians; English translation
from the Nicene Fathers series).
From Rome, Tatian returned to Syria, where he gathered followers,
wrote, and at some point assembled his great work, the Diatessaron.
Tatian seems to have been the first to attempt something which has since
become very popular: He created a harmony of the Gospels. (It is generally believed
that he used only the canonical four, but the lack of knowledge about his text
has led some to speculate that he used the Gospel of the Hebrews or some
other work in addition.) It is not certain whether the original language was
Greek or Syriac; whichever it was, the author soon turned it into the other.
That Tatian's work was very skilled can hardly be denied. But it was not the
gospel, and it came from an apparent heretic. Most parts of the church refused to use it.
Not so the Syriac Christians. Perhaps lacking a Bible of their own, they
adopted the Diatessaron and clung to it for probably two centuries
before the organized church managed to substitute the regular gospels.
Despite this widespread popularity, the Diatessaron has been very poorly
preserved. No certain fragments of the Syriac version are known, and of the
Greek we have only the single uncial fragment
0212, from Dura. Our primary
knowledge comes from the Armenian version of Ephraem's commentary. Many other
sources are quoted as having "Diassetaric" texts -- but the student
should always be careful lest a gospel harmony be mistaken for the
gospel harmony. Some of these harmonies (particularly the more recent versions
from Western countries) are probably independent.
The influence Tatian had on the orthodox New Testament is uncertain. Von
Soden thought him responsible for many harmonistic readings (and this shows
in the form of a massive number of alleged readings of Tatian in his
and Merk's apparati) -- but the simple
fact is that most scribes could make up harmonizations on their own. Therefore
attributing variants to Tatian is a hazardous business. Even citing his support
for a particular reading is rather doubtful; the student should be very careful
to check just which edition contains a particular reading. One should
also be very careful to make sure that the reading belongs to the gospel under
consideration....
Tatian wrote various other works; the most useful of these (at least
in the opinion of Eusebius) was The Greeks Answered, from which
we have assorted fragments. [Eus]
Tertullian. II/III. Latin. Nestle: Tert. Merk: Tert.
Quintus Septimus Florens Tertullianus was born shortly after the middle of
the second century to a pagan family in Carthage (his father was a Roman
centurion). Early in life he practiced law in Rome, returning to his native
city as a Christian shortly before the turn of the third century. His wit
and sprightly tongue made him a gifted controversialist, and he wrote
extensively against the various enemies of the church. But -- like many
converts -- the staid life of the official church was not sufficient
for him. He wanted a return to prophecy. After some years of trying and
failing to restore the spiritual nature of the Catholic church, he became a Montanist
(c. 207. Jerome reports
on this explicitly: "Remaining a presbyter of the church until... middle
age, ...Tertullian was, by the envy and false treatment of the Roman
clergy, driven to embrace the opinions of Montanus, which he has mentioned...
under the title "The New Prophecy"). This in
turn apparently wore thin for him, and in his last years he seems to
have tried to form an independent congregation. Last heard from around
220, he probably died shortly thereafter.
No list of Tertullian's works is extant, but historians have identified
at least 43 titles. Of these, all or part of 31 survive. Some of these, however,
date from after he left the Catholic church. Even so, Cyprian called him
"the Master," and made it a policy to read from his works every day.
Tertullian's text is somewhat problematic, as he wrote in Latin but
apparently used primarily Greek texts which he translated himself. (So, at
least, some moderns; Sanday and Souter thought he used both Greek and Latin texts, but
primarily the latter, perhaps of a type similar to the Old Latin b.) His
text is therefore rather unique. It contains its fair share of "Western"
readings, but also some characteristic of other types, and some that stand
alone (though these occasionally seem to have corrupt descendents in other
text-types). The extent to which these are truly readings that he knew
(as opposed to paraphrases that sprang from his fertile pen) is hard
to determine. In using his quotations from other authors, such as Marcion,
it is always important to remember that Tertullian was willing to paraphrase,
or even put words in his sources' mouths. Robert M. Grant notes,
"He touched almost nothing which he did not exaggerate."
[20CE, AA, AS, Eus, HC, GG]
Theodore of Mopsuestia. d. 428. Greek. Merk: Thd.
Born in Antioch around the middle of the fourth century, he studied rhetoric and
literature before devoting his attention entirely to Biblical studies. He became
Bishop of Mopsuestia in 392. He wrote a number of commentaries and other works,
but only a small fraction of these have survived, sometimes in catenae.
The reason for this is not
hard to find: He was later declared a heretic. Although no doubts were cast on
him during his life, Nestorius had studied under him, and the teacher was tarred
by the brush applied to the student. (Theodore may have been a heretic, but the
problem was perhaps simply one of language.) Soon after his death in 428, we find Marius
Mercator calling him the father of Pelagianism (431). In 435,
Hesychius of Jerusalem and Cyril of Alexandria
levelled charges. The Emperor quashed the suggestion at the
time, but Theodore continued to attract condemnation. His writings were formally cast
out at the Council of Constantinople in 553. [20CE, AA]
Theodoret of Cyrrhus. V. Greek. Nestle: Thret. Merk: Thdt.
Born late in the fourth century in Antioch, he became a monk and was reluctantly
consecrated Bishop of Cyrrhus in 423 (he probably wasn't much past thirty). Relatively
soft on Nestorianism (he tried to avoid condemning Nestorius at the Council of
Chalcedon in 451), he was the first vigorous opponent of Eutychianism. As a result,
he was deposed without a hearing at the "Robber Council" of 449 -- only
to be restored at Chalcedon in 451. In addition to writings on these subjects
(which have probably been supplemented by pseudonymous works) he wrote a commentary
on the Pauline Epistles and on large portions of the Old Testament. He died around 466,
although controversies continued to swirl about him for many decades.
Theodotus II. Greek. Merk: Thdot.
From the information in Merk it is not clear if this is Theodotus the
Gnostic, a Valentinian, or Theodotus/Theodorus of Byzantium, a developer
of dynamic Monarchianism (who was excommunicated by Victor of Rome in 198).
Theophilus of Alexandria. d. 412. Greek. Nestle: Theoph.
Successor of Athanasius as Bishop of Alexandria,
and like Athanasius, an opponent of heresy. His work was more political
than theological, however. Cyril of Alexandria was
his nephew. His citations are too few to really characterize his text,
although it would seem likely that it is Alexandrian. [20CE]
Theophilus of Antioch. II. Greek. Merk: Theoph (also Thph?)
Born in Mesopotamia, Eusebius lists him as the sixth Bishop of Antioch
"from the Apostles."
His only surviving work is the three-volume set To Autolycus
which describes the rudiments of Christianity. (Of the surviving manuscripts,
one is a copy of the other; another manuscript, examied by Gesner, in now
lost.) Eusebius describes him as
fighting heresy (in part by authoring a work The Heresy of Hermogenes
Answered) and writing instructional manuals. His theology was somewhat
limited, however, and tinged by gnostic elements. It placed relatively
little stress on Jesus. [20CE, AA, Eus]
Titus of Bostra. IV. Greek. Nestle: Tit. Merk: Tit
Author of a commentary in the form of sermons on Luke. It survives
only partly in quotations and catenae. He also wrote a work against the Manichaeans;
this exists primarily in Syriac. Little is known of his life save that he
was Bishop of Bostra and died before 378.
Tyconius. IV. Latin. Nestle: Tyc. Merk: Ty (also Tyc?)
A member of the Donatists (the party that opposed letting
those who lapsed from the faith during persecutions back
into the church on easy terms). He died some time after 390.
He wrote a commentary on the Apocalypse that survives primarily
in quotations by Beatus, and a study of Donatism, Bellum
Intestinum. In addition, we have a Book of Rules.
His text is Old Latin. [AA, CH]
Valentinians. II. Merk: Val
A Gnostic group founded by Valentinus in the second century.
Valentinus spent time in Rome (c. 135-160), but the center
of the cult was in Egypt. Valentinus and his followers (such as
Ptolemaeus, Heracleon, and Theodotus) created a system which
began with "Depth" and "Silence" and involved thirty
aeons of which Wisdom was the youngest and the mother of Jesus. (Trust
me, I'm not making this up, just expressing it in very short form.)
Details vary, but the heresy was strong enough to have provoked
reactions from Irenæus, Tertullian,
and Clement of Alexandria. (Of course, the accuracy
of those authors' discussions of the sect is questionable.)
Much of their system is now known from the writings at Nag Hammadi.
contra Varimadum arianum. IV/V. Latin. Merk: Var
An anti-Arian work probably to be dated in the period 445-480.
The compiler is unknown; Vigilius of Thapsus and Idacius Clarus of
Ossonuba have been mentioned.
Victor of Vita. fl. 486. Latin. Merk: VictV
Bishop of Vita in Africa. His known work is the Historia
persecutionis Africanæ provincia.
Victorinus of Pettau. d. 304. Latin. Nestle: Vic. Merk: Vict
Victorinus was an inhabitant of Poetovio, Pannonia (now known as
Pettau, Styria). Little is known of his early life, but he is known
to have died in Diocletian's persecution. He wrote commentaries on many
books -- mostly in the Old Testament; in the New, he seems to have written
only on Matthew and the Apocalypse. It is the last-named which has
survived; it is also one of the sources used by Primasius
and Beatus, and a modified version was propagated by
Jerome. His Latin style is curious;
several scholars think his native language was Greek.
Vigilius of Thapsus. V. Latin. Nestle: Vig. Merk: Vig
Bishop of Thapsus in Africa; died after 484. He wrote to combat
various heresies. He has been mentioned as a possible author of the
contra Varimadum arianum. Several other works have also been
attributed to him by the "Pseudo Vigilius."
de vocatione omnium gentium. V. Merk: Voc
Zeno of Verona. IV. Latin. Merk: Zeno
A Mauretanian, Bishop of Verona from 362 to 371/2.
Where Fathers are Cited in NA27 and Merk
The table below is intended as a rough indicator of which Fathers are most
widely quoted in the current Nestle text. (I say "rough" because there
are a handful of fathers -- e.g. Lactantius and Vigilius -- that NA27
claims to cite, but I have been unable to locate the citations.)
Citations from each author in various sections of NA27
| Author | Date | Mt | Mk | Lk | Jn
| Acts | Rom | Cor | G-Th
| Past | Heb | Cath | Apc |
| Acac | d. 366 | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Ad | IV | 1 | - | 3 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Ambr | d. 397 | - | - | 1 | - | 1 | - | - | 9 | - | 8 | 14 | 8 |
| Ps Ambr | | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - |
| Ambst | IV | - | - | - | - | - | 83 | 190 | 166 | 52 | - | 2 | - |
| Apr | V | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 19 |
| Arn | V | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - |
| Ath | d. 373 | 1 | - | - | - | 4 | - | - | - | 1 | 2 | 2 | - |
| Athen | II/III | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Aug | d. 430 | - | 1 | 1 | 2 | 10 | - | - | 25 | - | 7 | 50 | 5 |
| Basil | II | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Bas | d. 379 | 2 | 13 | 5 | - | 4 | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - |
| BasA | IV | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | 2 | - | - | - | - |
| Bea | VIII | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | 83 |
| Beda | d. 735 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 4 | - |
| Cass | VI | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 10 | - | - | 18 | - |
| Chr | d. 407 | 6 | 1 | - | 4 | 3 | 1 | - | 6 | 1 | - | 2 | - |
| Cl | II/III | 30 | 10 | 46 | 38 | 13 | 52 | 93 | 105 | 19 | 22 | 72 | - |
| Clhom | | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| 2Cl | II | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Cn | V | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - |
| Cyp | d. 258 | 24 | 5 | 7 | 3 | 14 | 7 | 26 | 19 | 7 | - | 13 | 28 |
| Cyr | d. 444 | 23 | - | 13 | 7 | 16 | 1 | - | - | - | 5 | 30 | - |
| CyrJ | d. 386 | 3 | - | 4 | - | 5 | - | - | - | - | 2 | - | - |
| Didache | II? | 4 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Did | d. 398 | 12 | 1 | 13 | 18 | 4 | 4 | 19 | 8 | 5 | 1 | 20 | 1 |
| Dion | III | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Ps Dion | | - | - | - | - | 2 | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - |
| Epiph | d. 403 | 8 | 7 | 27 | 36 | - | 3 | 40 | 8 | 8 | 4 | - | - |
| Eus | IV | 81 | 24 | 35 | 11 | 31 | 8 | 20 | 12 | 2 | 12 | 2 | - |
| Firmicus | IV | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2 | - |
| Fulg | VI | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| GrNy | d. 394 | 1 | - | 2 | - | 4 | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - |
| Hes | V | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | 2 | - |
| Hier | IV/V | 8 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 32 | 2 | 5 | 40 | - |
| Hil | d. 367 | 2 | - | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | 12 | - | 1 | 2 | - |
| Hipp | d. 235 | 1 | - | 1 | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | 14 |
| Ir | II | 70 | 10 | 50 | 30 | 112 | 34 | 53 | 55 | 3 | - | 11 | 43 |
| Ju | II | 8 | 1 | 2 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Jul | II | - | - | - | - | - | - | 4 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Lact | IV | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Lcf | IV | 3 | - | 1 | 2 | 45 | 3 | 7 | 13 | 9 | 6 | 17 | - |
| Mcion | II | - | - | 83 | - | - | 6 | 12 | 30 | - | - | - | - |
| Marc | V | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | 2 | - | - |
| Mar | II | 6 | - | 3 | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Meth | III | - | - | 2 | - | - | 10 | 8 | 4 | - | - | 2 | 1 |
| MVict | IV | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 27 | - | - | - | - |
| Nic | V | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - |
| Nil | V | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2 | - |
| Nov | III | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - |
| Ophites | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Or | d. 254 | 102 | 54 | 61 | 91 | 14 | 30 | 41 | 39 | 6 | 7 | 37 | 19 |
| Orsup | | - | - | - | 8 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Oros | V | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - |
| Pel | IV/V | - | - | - | - | - | 5 | 34 | 11 | 2 | - | 5 | - |
| Polyc | d. 156 | - | - | - | - | 1 | 2 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Prim | VI | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2 | 123 |
| Prisc | d. 385 | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 5 | - |
| Prosp | V | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - |
| Ptol | II | 2 | 1 | 3 | 2 | - | - | 4 | 1 | - | - | - | - |
| Qu | V | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 3 | - |
| Spec | V? | - | - | - | - | 5 | 20 | 21 | 28 | 9 | - | 30 | 5 |
| Tert | II/III | 6 | - | 1 | 7 | 5 | 9 | 43 | 30 | 8 | - | 8 | 5 |
| Thret | V | 1 | - | - | - | 3 | 1 | - | 1 | 1 | - | - | - |
| Theoph | d. 412 | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Tit | IV | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Tyc | IV | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | 1 | 36 |
| Vic | d. 304 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 19 |
| Vig | V | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
The table below gives equivalent data for Merk. Unless marked L, figures
are for the Greek apparatus. Note that some writers are cited in both the
Greek and Latin apparatuses.
Citations from each author in various sections of Merk
| Author | Mt | Mk | Lk | Jn
| Acts | Rom | Cor | G-Th
| Past | Heb | Cath | Apc |
| Addai | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Ad | - | - | 15 | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| adNov | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 5L | 4L |
| Af | 9 | 1 | 13 | 3 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Ag | 1 | - | - | 2 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Amb | 4 | 1 | 12
8L | 9
5L | 8
14L | 9
32L | 19
82L
| 12
48L | 5
6L | 7
7L | 5
13L | 6
4L |
| Ps. Amb. | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 10 |
| Ambst | - | - | - | - | 6
6L | 53
131L | 126
221L
| 162
263L | 71
135L | - | 1
3L | 1L |
| Amm | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Ap | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 11 |
| Arist | - | - | - | - | 2 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Ath | 4 | - | 4 | 12 | 8 | 8 | 13 | 6 | 3 | 10 | 5 | - |
| Aug | 7 | 1
1L | 21
2L | 19
65L | 50
45L | 26
117L
| 53
170L | 32
129L | 8
50L | 2
6L | 36
64L | 9
13L |
| Ps. Aug | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 27L |
| Barn | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Bars | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Bas | 12 | 2 | 21 | 9 | 7 | 11 | 31 | 12 | 8 | 3 | 2 | - |
| Be | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 49
2L |
| Beda | - | - | - | - | 4
16L | - | - | 1L | - | - | 2L | - |
| Can Ap | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - |
| Cass | - | - | - | - | 2
2L | - | 14L | 2
1L | - | - | 2 | 3 |
| Cl | 42 | 3 | 24 | 12 | 7 | 24 | 34 | 34 | 8 | 9 | 19 | - |
| Clh | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2
7L | - |
| Clr | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | 2 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Ps.Cl. | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Cr | 74 | 1 | 12 | 79 | 27 | 40 | 67 | 53
| 11 | 22 | 4 | - |
| Cy | 9 | 1 | 13 | 12 | 10 | 23 | 25 | 28 | 4 | 15 | 17 | - |
| Cyi | 6 | - | 2 | 6 | - | 6 | 7 | 3 | 6 | 6 | - | - |
| Cyp | 15 | 7 | 13
3L | 13
7L | 9
9L | 12
12L | 22
32L
| 16
22 | 4
14L | - | 14
11L | 24
105L |
| Cyr | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Dam | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Did | 2 | - | 4 | 18 | 7 | 10 | 19 | 13 | 4 | 3 | 9 | - |
| Didasc. Apostol | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Diod | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Dion | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2 |
| Ef | 30 | 7 | 14 | 26 | 82 | 100 | 163 | 124 | 44 | 46 | - | - |
| Ef | 6 | - | 6 | - | - | 8 | 4
| 10 | 1 | 2 | 21 | 1 |
| Ep | 4 | - | 12 | 17 | 8 | 4 | 17 | 3 | 3 | 1 | 3 | - |
| Ep Apost | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Euch | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1L | - |
| Eug | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1L | - |
| Eus | 73 | 16 | 44 | 49 | 12 | 8 | 25 | 26 | 4 | 13 | 2 | - |
| Euth | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | - |
| Ev. Eb | 1 | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Ev. Hebr | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Ev. Naz | 7 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Faustin(us) | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1L | - | - |
| Faust(us) | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1L | - | 1L | - | - | - |
| Fil | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1L | - |
| Firm | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | - |
| Fulg | - | - | - | - | 1L | - | - | 1L | - | - | 6
17L | 2L |
| Gelas | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1L | - |
| Genn | - | - | - | - | - | 2 | 1 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Heg | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Her | - | - | - | 11 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Hier | 4
22L | 3 | 2
1L | 2
2L | 4
34L | 9
48L | 19
107L
| 22
89L | 2
34L | 3 | 10
5L | 3 |
| Ps. Hier | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Hil | 18
2L | - | 5
2L | 16
2L | 7
6L | 8
25L | 24
38L
| 21
25L | 4
8L | 1 | 3
2L | 5
2L |
| Hila | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 31
161L | - |
| Hipp | 13 | - | 4 | 7 | - | 3 | 7 | 4 | - | - | - | 46 |
| Ps. Ignat. | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Ir | 112 | 7 | 54 | 29
2L | 70
40L | 23
20L | 49
20L
| 41
13L | 5 | - | 9
1L | 39
6L |
| Isod | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Iul | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1L | - | - | - | - | - |
| Iust | 20 | 1 | 8 | 2 | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Juv | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Laz | 1 | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Lcf | 5
1L | - | 2 | 4
1L | 51
47L | 1
9L | 4
10L
| 21
29L | 8
23L | 3
1L | 22
23L | - |
| Leo | - | - | - | - | 2 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| LG | 4 | - | 3 | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Max | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1
1L | - |
| Maximin | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1L | - |
| Mel | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Meth | 1 | 1 | 4 | - | - | 8 | 9 | 4 | - | - | - | - |
| Mn | 1 | - | 91 | - | - | 35 | 95 | 106 | - | - | - | - |
| MVict | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Na | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Naass | 1 | - | - | 3 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Nic | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Nov | 2 | - | - | 6 | - | 2
1L | 1
4L | 4
1L | 2
1L | - | - | - |
| Ny | - | - | 1 | 2 | - | - | 8 | 4 | 1 | 1 | - | - |
| Oec | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | 1 | - | - |
| OI | 6 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Opt | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Or | 154 | 37 | 82 | 100 | 19 | 102
18L | 121
35L
| 67
14L | 19
9L | 22 | 17 | 5
1L |
| Oros | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1L | - |
| Pac | - | - | - | - | 2L | 1L | 1
7L | 2L | 1L | - | - | - |
| Paul | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2L | - | - | - | - | - |
| Paulin | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1L | - | - | - | - |
| Pel | - | - | - | - | - | 20
79L | 30
50L | 29
185L
| 27
132L | - | 1L | - |
| Pol | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - |
| Pr | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 120
377L |
| Prisc | - | - | - | - | 3
1L | 1L | 5
18L | 1
3L | 1L | -
| 1
4L | 5
4L |
| Ptol | - | - | - | 2 | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Rebapt | - | - | - | - | 5
1L | 1 | 1L | - | - | - | 1
2L | - |
| Ruf | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1L | - | - |
| Sar | 1 | 3 | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | 1 | - | - |
| Sed | - | - | - | - | - | 1
5L | 2
34L | 24L | 1
4L | 4L | - | - |
| Sev | - | - | - | - | - | 2 | 1 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Sing | - | - | - | - | - | 2L | 1
7L | 4L | 1
5L | - | - | - |
| SiSi | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Socr | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - |
| Ta | 488 | 270 | 578 | 547 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Tert | 23 | 5 | 16 | 39
8L | 14
10L | 25
22L | 95
51L
| 46
34L | 6
3L | 1
1L | 15
6L | 5 |
| Thd | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | 1 | - | - |
| Thdot | - | - | 1 | 4 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Thdt | - | - | 1 | 3 | 7 | 24 | 24 | 13 | 10 | 13 | 1 | - |
| Thdtion | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - |
| Theoph | - | - | - | 2 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Tit | 2 | 2 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Ty | - | 1L | - | - | 1L | 2L | - | 1L | - | - | - | 68
270L |
| Val | - | - | 1 | 5 | - | - | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | - |
| Var | 2L | 6L | - | - | 7L | 7L | 2
21L | 1
24L | 3L | -
| 3
5L | - |
| Vict | - | 1 | 1 | 7 | 1
1L | 3 | 3L | 60
92L | 1L | 1L
| - | 20
24L |
| VictV | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - |
| Vig | - | - | 3 | - | 5L | 2 | 10L | 10L | 2L | - | 2L | - |
| Voc | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1L | - |
| Zeno | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1L | - | 1L | - |
How to Use Patristic Testimony
The first problem in dealing with the Fathers is order: Except for a few
commentaries, the Fathers don't quote the New Testament chapter by chapter
and verse by verse. Instead, they cite passages as they are useful in whatever
argument they are making. So we must endeavor to sort out their citations
into an orderly whole. This is not really a problem with their texts, but it
means that significant effort must be undertaken to use their witness.
The second problem is one of accuracy of citation. Most fathers did not
refer to manuscripts when they quoted scripture. They just used the wording
they remembered. And they did not always remember accurately. Even if they
did recall the passage with precision, they might omit or paraphase
part of it for effect.
And, finally, there is the problem of transmission. We no more have the
original manuscript of Irenaeus or Tertullian than we have the original
autographs of the New Testament itself. Often the textual transmission of
the Father's writings has been troubled. Before we can rely on their
testimony, we must subject it to textual criticism itself.
Why, then, do we bother with such difficuly sources of information?
Because the Fathers, unlike manuscripts or versions, can be so precisely
located. In most instances, we know with fair precision both where
and when a particular author wrote. Thus, a judicious use of their
testimony can allow us to localize particular readings and text-types.
In addition, many of the Fathers are early, and their texts predate
all but our earliest continuous-text witnesses. They thus give us insight
into a period
where the history of the text would otherwise be completely dark. The
earliest Greek witnesses to the "Western" text, for instance,
date from the fifth century and after. The earliest Latin witnesses come
from about the fourth. But in the quotations of Irenaeus, Tertullian,
Cyprian, and others, we have fragments of "Western" texts going
as far back as the second century.
Taking all this into account, we can establish the following rules
for using the evidence of the Fathers:
- A reading should not be accepted on patristic evidence alone, but the
testimony of a Father gives valuable dated support to readings found in
particular Greek manuscripts.
- Arguments from silence should not be accepted in the Fathers (unless
the Father is writing a continuous commentary). If a Father omits part of
a quotation, it may simply be that the reading does not suit this purpose.
(Note: This rule is not accepted by a small group headed by Boismard, who
occasionally accept short readings based on patristic evidence alone.)
- If a Father, particularly in the lemma of a commentary, has a Byzantine
reading, the context must be checked carefully to be sure that copyists
have not conformed the reading to the Byzantine text.
- If the writings of a Father exist only or primarily in translation,
care must be taken to ensure the translation has not been conformed to
the prevailing text in that language (the Latin texts of Origen and
Irenaeus, for instance, both seem to have been influenced by Old Latin
manuscripts, yielding a much more "Western" text). One should
also be sure that the translations are correct translations (Rufinus,
e.g., was quite capable of paraphrasing or even rewriting what he was
translating).
It is hard to imagine a summation of both the strengths and weaknesses
of patristic evidence more succinct than Ehrman's: "Patristic
sources provide primary evidence for the history of the text but only
secondary evidence for the original text itself" (Didymus
the Blind and the Text of the Gospels, p. 5).
Sources of Information
Thanks to all the folks who came forward with information for this
article, including Ulrich Schmid, Jean Valentin, Christopher Eyton, and Vincent Broman.
Abbreviations used to indicate sources include:
- 20CE = The Twentieth Century Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge
- 4G = B. H. Streeter, The Four Gospels: A Study of Origins
- AA = Kurt Aland & Barbara Aland, The Text of the New Testament
- AS = Alexander Souter, The Text and Canon of the New Testament
- BE = Bart Ehrman, Didymus the Blind and the Text of the Gospels
- BMM1 = Bruce M. Metzger, The Early Versions of the New Testament
- BMM2 = Bruce M. Metzger, Manuscripts of the Greek Bible
- CG = The Complete Gospels (Scholars Version, edited by
Robert J. Miller)
- CE = Christopher Eyton
- CH = C. E. Hammond, Outlines of Textual Criticism Applied to the New Testament
- CS = Carl Springer
- Eus = Eusebius (Ecclesiastical History and other works; translations are
generally from the English version of G. A. Williamson)
- FHAS = F. H. A. Scrivener (4th Edition revised by Edward Miller), A
Plain Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament
- FKBA = Sir Frederic Kenyon, The Bible and Archaeology
- GG = Edgar J. Goodspeed (Revised by Robert M. Grant), A History of
Early Christian Literature
- GZ = G. Zuntz, The Text of the Epistles
- HC = Henry Chadwick, The Early Church
- JF = Jack Finegan, Encountering New Testament Manuscripts
- JV = Jean Valentin
- LSP = Leo Sherley-Price, [Introduction to the translation of Bede's] A
History of the English Church and People
- MG = Michael Grant (various historical writings)
- MS = Maxwell Staniforth, [Introductions to the translations of] Early
Christian Writings: The Apostolic Fathers
- PDAH = Graham Speake, Editor, The Penguin Dictionary of Ancient History
- RBW = Robert B. Waltz
- R&W = L. D. Reynolds and N. G. Wilson, Scribes & Scholars
- SS = Sipilä Seppo
- US = Ulrich Schmid
- VB = Vincent Broman
Note: The larger portion of this work was completed before I started
listing sources, and I am still reconstructing the materials. So for any
given entry, many sources may have been consulted which are not listed.